Ancient - Greek verse - epic - tragedy/historical/mythology

The main works of Ancient Greek epic poetry are the two monumental works of Homer - the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey'.

The figure of Homer is widely regarded as the first great writer in the Western canon of literature. His work has had an enormous influence on all literature written in the western world since - including other Ancient Greek writers and later writers throughout Europe and the Americas, in a period spanning nearly three thousand of years.

Critics differ over the exact place and time of Homer's birth, but most believe he was born around the 8th or 7th century BC, which puts him at the very beginning of the ancient Greek time frame. His work thus had an enormous influence on Ancient Greek language, arts and culture. The writing of the Iliad would have preceded the Odyssey, by some decades, but they were both probably written in around the 7th century BC. However, some scholars believe the epics are the culmination of many generations of oral story-telling and only became fixed texts in the 6th century BC. We cannot be sure.

Aristotle, in his Poetics, wrote that that Homer focused on a single unified theme in his epic cycle. He used dactylic hexameter, a form of verse with a rapid rhythm and syntax which structures the flowing evolution of the thoughts of characters. It is often direct in expression. This form of rapidity of movement and directness of expression are not distinguishing qualities in the later epic poets of Virgil, Dante, Spenser or Milton, but are unique to Homer. However, Homer's verse is not lyric poetry; its epic qualities can be found in its noble and powerful style found through every change of idea or subject.

Homer's epics differ from the later Roman, Italian, French and English epics because they lack an underlying motive. Virgil and Spenser were concerned with elevating the greatness of their current nations (Ancient Rome and Elizabethan England, respectively); Dante, Milton and the French epics were concerned with religious themes extorting their criticisms of other faiths and their celebration of their own, or political themes regarding the current rulers of their age. However, Homer's epics include no criticism of certain rulers, races or religions and the wars he writes about are not concerned with political events because they are mythological rather than historical, and are not meant to be analogies to current political events or rulers. Homer is concerned purely with the dramatical; the strength and depth of human interaction, emotion and achievement.

The 'Iliad' is largely centered around the events of the Trojan war. 19th century archeologists discovered that the Trojan war had some historical basis, and that the Iliad reflects a succession of oral epics written about a historical war that happened in around the 12th century BC. The Iliad presents the Trojan war as a ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium), in modern-day Turkey, by a coalition of Greek kings and states. I have decided to include a description of the plot of the epic because it involves some great tales from Greek mythology.

The 'Iliad' starts with an invocation to the Muses, then the plot launches 'in medias res' (in the middle of events), in the final year of the Trojan war between the defending Trojans and the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, the god of light and the sun, offers the Greeks wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, who is a captive of Agamemnon, who is the Greek King of Mycenae and considered the High King of the Greeks (the king of the coalition of other Greek kings), and is leading the Greek siege on Troy. Agamemnon refuses this offer, to the chagrin of the other Greek kings. Chryses prays to Apollo, who causes a plague through the assembled Greek army in response.

After nine days of plague, Achilles, king of the Myrmidon warrior-tribe of Greeks and the greatest warrior in the Greek army, calls an assembly. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take another woman, Briseis, as compensation. Achilles had led a previous assault on Troy and captured Briseis when all her family had been killed. He had susequently taken her as his concubine, with thoughts of marrying her. Achilles is furious that Agamemnon has taken Briseis, and in his wrath he declares that the Myrmidons will no longer fight for the coalition of Greeks and will go home. Odysseus, the Greek king of Ithaca and a close friend of Achilles, then takes a ship and brings Chryseis to her father. Apollo ends the plague in return.

Achilles asks his mother Thetis, a sea nymph, to ask Zeus, the King of the gods, for the Greeks to be brought to near-defeat by the Trojans so that Agamemnon will realise how much the Greeks need Achilles for their victory. Thetis does this for Achilles. Zeus, acting on behalf of Thetis, sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon decides to first test the dedication of the Greek army by telling them to return home; giving them a false order to see who will stay and who will leave. The plan backfires and a riot breaks out amongst the Greek army.

Odysseus, inspired by Athena, the goddess of wisdom and justice, manages to stop the fighting. He confronts Thersites, a common Greek soldier who voices discontent about the war, and manages to turn the rest of the Greeks back to their siege. Agamemnon and Odysseus agree to go forward with the plan to attack Troy. Priam, the king of Troy, hears news of the imminent Greek attack and deploys his own troops. Leading them is his eldest son, Prince Hector, who is the greatest warrior in Troy and the heir to the Trojan throne.

The Greek armies approach the Trojan armies on the plain before the city. Before they begin to fight, Paris, the younger son of Priam and younger brother of Hector, offers to end the war before it comes to another battle by fighting in single combat against Menelaus, the Greek King of Sparta and younger brother of Agamemnon. Hector agrees with Paris' plan to fight Menelaus. Menelaus agrees to the single combat, and both the Greeks and Trojans swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Menelaus beats Paris, but he saved by Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who rescues him before Menelaus can kill him and takes him to bed with Helen, his wife.

Hera, the wife of Zeus and the goddess of marriage and childbirth, hates the Trojans. Before the war Paris had given the Apple of Discord to Aphrodite instead of her and she has held a grudge against Paris and the Trojans ever since. Hera pressures Zeus to force the Trojan warrior Pandaros to break the truce between the Greeks and Trojans by wounding Menelaus with an arrow.

Aphrodite rescues Diomedes

Pandaros harms Meneaus and Agamemnon rouses the Greeks to attack the Trojans once again. Many heroes and kings on both sides join the battle. In the fighting, Diomedes, the Greek king of Argos, kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats the Trojan warrior Aeneas. Aphrodite rescues Aeneas before Diomedes kills him, but is herself attacked and wounded by Diomedes as she escapes. Apollo chastises Diomedes and warns him against attacking the gods. However Athena encourages Diomedes to continue fighting and he wounds Ares, the god of war, and puts him out of action.

Hector manages to rally the Trojans; he enters Troy, urgers prayers and sacrifices and incites Paris and others to re-join the battle. He then bids farewell to his wife, Andromache, and his son, Astyanax, on the city walls, before leading the Trojan army against the Greeks and managing to stop a Greek rout.

Diomedes and the Trojan warrior Glaucus manage to find common ground on the field of battle. They learn that their grandfathers were friends and declare that they should continue their friendship despite being on opposite sides. They exchange armour as a sign of their friendship, but Glacus is tricked by Zeus, and gives Diomedes far more expensive armour than the one he receives himself. 

Hector duels with Ajax, the Greek king of Salamis. However, nightfall interrupts the fighting and both sides retire; the Trojans retreating back into Troy and the Greeks returning to their camps. That night the Trojans argue about returning Helen to Menelaus to end the war. Paris offers to return the treasure he stole from the Greeks, and give further wealth as compensation, but refuses to return Helen. This offer is given, but the Greeks refuse it. A day's truce is agreed for burning the dead of both sides, and the Greeks also build a wall to protect their ships.

The fighting begins again on the next day, and Zeus forbids the gods from interfering. Without the help of Hera and Athena, the Greeks are forced to retreat back to their wall by the Trojans, led by Hector. The Trojans inflict heavy losses on the Greeks and they camp in the field just next to the Greek wall, ready to attack them at first light. The Greeks despair over their loss and Agamemnon admits his error in antagonising and ostracising Achilles. He sends an embassy of Odysseus, Ajax and Phoenix, a Myrmidon who stayed behind when Achilles departed, as well as two heralds to offer Briseis and many gifts to Achilles, who is camped next to his ships away from the fighting, to persuade him to return to the war.

Achilles and his close companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but he is beyond reconciling with Agamemnon and angrily refuses to return to the fighting. He declares that he will only return to battle if the Trojans threaten to burn his ships. The embassy return to Agamemnon without Achilles and the other Myrmidons.

That night Odysseus and Diomedes venture into the Trojan camp and kill the warrior Dolon before wreaking havoc in the camps of the Thracians, who are allies of Troy. This leads to an outbreak of fierce fighting from the Trojans the next day, and Agamemnon, Diomedes and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles is alarmed by the losses the Greeks suffer from the Trojans and he sends Patroclus to the battle to inquire about Greek casualties. Whilst there Patroclus is moved to pity by the speech of Nestor, an elderly Greek king, who tells Patroclus to try to persuade Achilles to reconcile with Agamemnon and save the Greek army.

Hector is given an ill omen about attacking the Greek wall by the Trojan seer Polydamas. He urges Hector to fall back to Troy and warns him about Achilles, but Hector ignores this and leads an assault on the Greek wall on foot. The fighting is brutal and the Greeks are overwhelmed. The wall's gate is breached and Hector and the Trojans charge in. Many are killed on both sides, but the Greeks suffer far more.

Hera despairs when she sees the Greeks losing, so she seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep. Whilst he is sleeping the gods can interfere in the fighting once again. Poseidon, Zeus' brother and the god of the sea, interferes on the side of the Greeks, and the Trojans are forced back from the wall to the plain. When Zeus awakens he is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. He sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, to balance out Poseidon's act, against the fury of the the gods that support the Greeks. With Apollo's help the Trojans breach the wall once again, and the battle extends down to the Greek ships, with heavy Greek losses.

Patroclus can no longer stand to watch the Greeks being routed and so he begs Achilles to allow him to defend the Greek ships. Achilles relents, and lets Patroclus wear his armour. He tells him to defend the ships, but not to pursue the Trojans so that he will not take Achilles' glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle with the other Greeks and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the surprise onslaught from Patroclus, and Patroclus kills the Trojan warrior Sarpedon.

Patroclus then ignores Achilles' demand and pursues the retreating Trojan army all the way to the gates of Troy. Here he is stopped by Apollo and the Trojan warrior Euphorbos. Hector then engages Patroclus in single combat, thinking he is Achilles, and kills him. He then takes Achilles' armour off him and releases he has killed the wrong man.

That night Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus' death. He vows to take vengeance on Hector, but his mother Thetis grieves, telling him that if he kills Hector, he will also die young. Achilles ignores this. Athena makes him appear even mightier then he is, and he stands next to the Greek wall and roars in rage; vowing to retrieve Patroclus' body and take vengeance on Hector. The Trojans are terrified by Achilles' appearance. The Greeks manage to bear Patroclus' body away.

Polydamas again urges Hector to withdraw back into Troy and flee from Achilles, but Hector refuses and the Trojans camp in the plain at nightfall. The Greeks mourn Patroclus. At Thetis' request, Hephaestus, the god of craftsmen and metallurgy, fashions new armour for Achilles, as well as a magnificent shield. The next morning Agamemnon gives Achilles the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them because he is so dismayed over Patroclus' death. He fasts instead of taking a meal with the Greeks and then straps on his new armour as well as his shield and great spear. He then attaches his horse, Xanthos, to his chariot.

Achilles rides his chariot into battle against the Trojans, leading the Myrmidons. Zeus decides he wants to end this war and so lifts the ban on the gods' interference. The gods intervene on both sides. Achilles is burning with rage and grief, and his assault on the Trojans is bloody. He and the Myrmidons manage to divide the Trojan army in half, and proceed to slaughter one half and fill the river Skamandros with the dead. The river is angry at the killing and confronts Achilles, but is beaten back by Hephaestus, who produces a firestorm. The gods then begin to fight amongst themselves. The Trojans retreat back to Troy, being let back in through the gates, and Apollo disguises himself as a Trojan warrior and leads Achilles away from the city gates. By the time Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the remaining Trojan army has retreated back behind the walls of Troy to safety, all except for Hector.

Achilles fights Hector

Hector feels the shame of the retreat. Despite the warnings from Polydamas and the pleas from Priam and Hecuba, his father and mother, and Andromache, he resolves to face Achilles on his own. Hector is chased around the city by Achilles, until Athena tricks him to stop running, and he turns to face his opponent. Achilles and Hector duel, and it is one of the greatest duels of all time. Eventually, Achilles stabs Hector in the neck. As he falls, dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he is fated to die in the war as well. After Hector is dead Achilles takes his body and ties it to the back of his chariot to drag back to the Greek camp.

Achilles drags Hector's body behind his chariot

That night the ghost of Patroclus appears to Achilles in a dream and tells him to bury his body. The next day the Greeks bury their dead, including Patroclus, and hold a day of funeral games. Achilles gives out the prizes. Zeus is dismayed that Achilles still hasn't returned Hector's body, so he decides to convince him to return it to Priam. Zeus sends Hermes, his messenger, to Priam, to take him out of Troy and across the plains to the Greek camp unnoticed. Priam grasps Achilles by the knees and begs to have his son's body back. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. Achilles gives Priam a meal, and then returns his body back, telling Priam that Hector was the greatest warrior he's ever fought. Priam carries Hector's body back to Troy, he is buried and the city mourns.

'The Iliad' is a martial epic and its main theme is a celebration of the glory in war: characters are judged worthy or not based upon their competence and bravery in battle. Characters like Achilles, Ajax and Hector are venerated for their strength and courage in battle, and warlike deities like Athena and Ares are also judged the most favourably. Characters that show less interest or competence in war, such as Paris, Aphrodite and Artemis, are widely derided. 

Homer emphasises the glory of war by holding it to be more important than the loving bonds of family and home. The pursuit of 'kleos' (glory/renown) should triumph over 'nostos' (homecoming). Achilles chooses to fight in the Trojan War over living a long and happy, but uneventful, family life. He also chooses to remain fighting rather than return home to his ageing father, and wins eternal glory as a result. Likewise, Hector's wife Andromache constantly pleads with Hector not to fight and to stay with her and their infant son, but Hector continues to fight on the frontline to win both himself and his father glory. If the hero fights, he wins 'timê' (honour/respect) and proves his noble bravery and integrity which ensures that his name will be remembered.

Characters that do not make this choice are condemned by Homer. Paris would rather spend time making love to Helen than fighting in the war, and this wins him the derision of his brother, father, most of the Greeks and Helen herself. The fact that he chooses to fight with a bow and arrow rather than a sword also marks him as a coward, and unmanly, and wins him further scorn. The timidity of the goddesses Aphrodite and Artemis, who run from aggression instead of fighting, are used as comic relief and are portrayed as far less worthy than their fellow goddess Athena, who wins huge renown supporting the Greeks.

Despite being a martial epic, the poem does not ignore the brutal realities of war. Men and women die gruesome deaths, plague ravishes the Greek camp and there is much grief and anguish. Both armies sometimes bitterly regret that the war ever begun and there are many times when both sides contemplate suing for peace and ending the fighting. Homer presents the horrors of war and the regrets over fighting, as well as the fears that even the mightiest warriors face. He presents the grief of friends, brothers, fathers and lovers over their lost ones. However, he never implies that the fight constitutes only a waste of human life. Rather, he portrays both sides as having a justifable reason to fight and depicts warfare as a respectable way of settling a dispute. Homer's voice throughout the poem is neutral; he doesn't portray one side as more noble that the other. Rather, both the Greeks and the Trojans have good and bad characters and do noble and cowardly deeds. 

Through prophecies, Homer emphasises his theme of fate. He alludes to Troy's ultimate destruction several times, as well as recording prophesies over the deaths of Priam and all his children and many of the Greeks including Achilles, Agamemnon and Ajax. The indication that fate governs all the actions of the characters alludes to the idea of mortality and inevitableness, which runs through the Iliad. Achilles repeatedly states that all men die sooner or later, and Homer demonstrates the ephemeral nature of humans and the world, suggesting that mortals should try to live as honourably as possible so they will be remembered well after their short lives are over, as all of them one day will be. This also adds greater renown to the gods, who live in greater glory because of their immortality.